In the month of October 1962, America came closer to nuclear war than it had ever been. Eve to this date America has not come as close as it did during those thirteen days. Cold war tensions between America and the Soviet Union boiled over when the Soviet Union began to place offensive weapons in Cuba. Knowing the threat of a country having offensive first strike capabilities so close to America, President John F. Kennedy gave one of his most famous speeches.
In this speech President Kennedy uses his gifted speaking abilities and his use of his credibility and character, also called Ethos, to convince the world of the danger that was the Soviet Union. Kennedy brought the crisis to the attention of the public in an effort to gain public support for this outrageous act of hostility on the part of the Soviet Union. Kennedy wanted to lay out his intention to the public, as well as strike fear into the hearts of the opposition. Using his credibility as President and highlighting the lack of credibility the Soviet Union possessed, President Kennedy was able to prevent more offensive weapons from getting to Cuba and arguably saved America from nuclear war.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy, born into a life of privilege was given the best education possible. From 9th to 12th Grade, Kennedy attended Choate Rosemary Hall, a private male boarding school. After graduating with the honor of “most likely to be president” Kennedy went on to attend Harvard after a short stint at Princeton. He graduated Cum Laude from Harvard with a degree in international relations.
Kennedy decided, after his military stint to follow the family footsteps and go into politics over his intended route of journalism. Kennedy had already written “Why England Slept,” a thesis published into a book, after his graduation. He wrote “Profiles in Courage” during a rehab period after spinal surgery.
Following a close race in the 1960 Presidential election, Kennedy asserted himself as a prominent speaker. Kennedy created a team of writers, none of which were given the role as head speech writer. Although no one person was titled Head Speech Writer, Ted Sorensen was known as the head the writing group and handled all major speeches for Kennedy. Sorensen, after the failed Bay of Pigs debacle was appointed to handle foreign policy as well.
One of Kennedy’s main focus early into his tenure as president was Cuba. Shortly after the Bay of Pigs, Fidel Castro was sure that another American attack was imminent. He formed ties with the Soviet Union and Soviet Leader Khrushchev whom built up the Cuban military. With long lasting tensions between America and the Soviet Union stemming from the end of World War II, the Cold War began to heat up.
Kennedy in his Inaugural Address took a firm stance on international issues. “Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” Kennedy continues his speech powerful antithesis. An antithesis is a counter-proposition in effort to show the contract between statements. This verbal tool was a common trait of Kennedys. “Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate.”
These words, despite many beliefs were written by Kennedy himself and not Sorensen. While Sorensen was prominent in most of Kennedy’s rhetoric, many feel that Kennedy’s natural speaking ability conveyed what the written words could not. Kennedy’s team of speechwriters all gave their two cents, followed by Kennedy’s final cut. However, for the final draft it went down to Kennedy and Sorensen who went through each point. Sorensen claimed that Kennedy loved precision in every word he used.
In April of 1962 the tension began to expand. The Soviet Union first began to place surface to surface missiles in Cuba claiming they were preparing Cuba for any incoming attack. The Soviets followed that up in May by beginning the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba. Kennedy told congress on September 4th 1962 that there were no offensive weapons in Cuba. The Kennedy brothers spoke with representatives of the Soviets and then to Khrushchev on September 11th who claimed there is no need for nuclear weapons in Cuba.
U-2 aerial jet photographers captured pictures of several missile sites across Cuba. Kennedy saw these photos began to formulate scenarios based upon possible decisions he could make regarding the missile discovery. Kennedy was torn on what to do about the Soviet/Cuba issues. Military officials insisted on either bombing the sites or running a full force invasion into Cuba. Another option, favored by Robert Kennedy and Robert McNamara was a military blockade.
On October 19th U-2 photographers captured evidence of operational military sites capable of nuclear attacks. Kennedy warned American military forces about a possible attack and assigned Sorensen to write two different speeches for either decision that he could make. At this point in time the world was being told by the Soviets that America was just trying to invade Cuba, yet again. That the Kennedy administration had failed at this once before and now that Cuba is building its defenses this is the best time to attack. Kennedy knew he had only a few choices, first an attack and invasion on the weapons. The second option was the quarantine, and third was to negotiate with Cuba.
All three choices had major problems. The first did not guarantee that all missiles would be found. The second could be considered an act of war against the Soviets. The third gave the Soviets more time then America was willing to give. If the third option was taken, the Soviets would know Kennedy was just a man of talk and would not do anything rash to stop them. It also gave them enough time to build up more military forces in Cuba.
Kennedy and his staff decided it was best for the quarantine to take place against military suggestions. Kennedy went to the Organization of American States to request this quarantine, technically known as a blockade, which is an illegal act. The organization gave Kennedy permission for the act and on October 22nd Kennedy gave one of his most famous speeches.
This speech was meant to affect two sides of the world. The Soviet Union was on one end of the address and on the other was the rest of the world who wanted peace. Kennedy expected for the people of the world to see that America is not the enemy. America was not threatening a small country who only wanted to defend themselves, but was only trying to prove that the Soviet Union was trying to deceive the world.
With the address Kennedy meant to scare the Soviets away from the present course. Kennedy let them know that we will not stand still and allow this to happen. The Soviets felt that Kennedy was soft and would not stand up against them. The world watched Kennedy during the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in which Kennedy would not give any air support to the Cuban team. Despite his timid approach to the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy wanted to assure the Soviets that he and his staff meant business.
Kennedy in this speech uses one main tactic in his invention, Ethos. Ethos fills almost his entire speech. Kennedy uses Ethos not to boost his own character as much as to harm the Soviet credibility. The attacks against the credibility of the Soviets play the main part of this speech. Kennedy wanted enlighten the world to the knowledge he had formulated, that the Soviets were planning an attack.
Shortly into the speech Kennedy attacks the Soviet government, calling them liars. Kennedy uses a September 11th statement made by the Soviet government saying that, “the armaments and military equipment sent to Cuba are designed exclusively for defensive purposes.” Kennedy moves further into the Soviet statement, “there is no need to search for sites for them beyond the boundaries of the Soviet Union” Kennedy then bluntly states, “That statement was false.”
Kennedy then follows that statement by calling the Soviet foreign minister a liar by saying that, “training by Soviet specialists of Cuban nationals in handling defensive armaments was by no means offensive and if it were otherwise, the Soviet government world never become involved in rendering such assistance.” Kennedy again bluntly states, “That statement was also false.”
Kennedy then continues his speech by building on America’s credibility while attacking the Soviets. He claims that, “our own strategic missiles have never been transferred to the territory of any other nation under a cloak of secrecy and deception, unlike that of the Soviets since World War II” Kennedy claims that, “(we) Have no desire to dominate or conquer any other nation or impose out system upon its people.” This statement is relevant not only attacking the current situation, but reminding the world about Berlin.
Kennedy reminds the audience that, “Our policy has been one of patience and restraint.” In his first step to end the buildup, Kennedy again shows America’s world savior intentions and the Soviet’s evil intentions. While speaking of blocking Cuba from the world Kennedy states that, “We are not at this time, however denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948.” Kennedy previously brought up Berlin, and once again tries to gain public support for the current situation by looking at Berlin.
Kennedy’s seventh step in ending the crisis calls out directly to Khrushchev. Kennedy states that these actions on the part of the Soviets are, “Clandestine, reckless and provocative.” Kennedy claims that this is the Soviets on a path of, “World domination” Kennedy uses the entire seventh step to gain more public support against Khrushchev. Kennedy wanted to make Khrushchev look like the evil behind the weapons that was threatening the world.
Kennedy’s last effort to gain public support using Ethos was right after the seventh step. Kennedy states Americas general intentions, “We have no wish to go to war with the Soviet Union, for we are peaceful people who desire to live in peace with all other peoples.” Kennedy uses the word peaceful and also puts us on the side of the world saying that we are part of the peoples.
Despite the overwhelming amount of Ethos in the speech, Kennedy also uses emotional appeal also known as Pathos. The main point of his Pathos was to scare the rest of the world with the threat of nuclear war. In the third sentence of this speech Kennedy uses that very threat saying that, “The purposes of the bases can be none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western Hemisphere.” Kennedy used the word “nuclear” to evoke fear knowing that this word will scare Americans and the world, in a time of major arms buildups.
Kennedy explains the details of the striking capabilities saying that the devises have the, “capabilities of striking most of the major cities in the Western Hemisphere, ranging as far north as Hudson Bay, Canada.” Kennedy wanted people to understand the range of these weapons and the damage they could cause. He then follows with the phrase, “Sudden mass destruction.” This furthers the fear of what could happen from these weapons.
Kennedy, in the third step to end the conflict, looked to scare the Soviets rather than the rest of the world. Kennedy wanted to show the Soviets that he meant business by threatening them saying, “It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union.” This is one of the most prominent parts of the speech because Kennedy directly threatens the Soviets with action in efforts to scare them out of Cuba. Kennedy used this hoping that the Soviets would realize that we are onto their plans and that we have more power and will use a “full retaliatory response.”
Kennedy’s main use of Pathos was directed towards all Cubans. Kennedy uses words that were meant to anger the Cubans towards the Soviets. Kennedy explained that the Cuba was, “an imprisoned land.” He continues saying that Cuba has been, “turned into the first Latin American country to become a target for nuclear war.”
Kennedy uses the words “free” and “freedom” throughout the seventh point to show Cuba what America can offer if they resist the Soviets. This statement was not used specifically to evoke anger of Cubans towards the Soviets, but more so to show the world that America is willing to reach out to Cuba to end this issue.
Kennedy laid out his speech to address each point separately. The first part of the speech was designed to continually repeat that we in America are looking for peace and the Soviets are going to destroy that. The second part of the speech laid out the plans for ending the crisis. In the third part, Kennedy reaches out to all Cubans saying that they need to resist the Soviets if they ever want freedom. Kennedy concluded the speech the same way he started, simple and straight to the point. Kennedy ends by saying that the Soviets will ruin world peace and bring us all to nuclear war if not stopped.
The way Kennedy laid out the speech was extremely effective. He first grabs the attention of the audience with his scare tactics and words about nuclear war. Once he gets the attention of the world viewers he laid out his basic ultimatum to the Soviets. In seven steps Kennedy explains his one option for the Soviets, remove the weapons or face war. He tries to gain more support by showing that he does not want war. He also reaches out to the Cubans, whom he has had difficulties with. Kennedy then he finished his speech with a plea of peace saying that, “Our goal is not the victory of might, but the vindication of right.”
Kennedy’s style stresses repetition and antithesis. With his repetition it shows that he wants the world to know that he is serious about the situation. He wants to stress the danger that the Soviets are presenting to the world. He first uses the “false” (liar) statement and then repeats himself with another “false” (liar) statement to show that this is not a one time occurrence. Kennedy on several occasions uses the threat of nuclear war. Kennedy continues to use nuclear war as a scare tactic because people feared the danger of nuclear war in a time not far removed from World War II. The more Kennedy mentions the word nuclear, the more it implants the severity of the situation in peoples’ minds.
Kennedy also uses words and statements that forces the world to view America as the good side and the Soviets like the bad. He continues to stress that the Soviets are the ones putting everyone in danger and that America is doing what is right. At this point in time Kennedy had not released the proof or pictures he had of the Soviet bases. The reason for the continued stress of good and bad was because he wanted the public to start thinking about the dangers of the Soviet actions and to catch the Soviets in their lies.
Kennedy in most of his speeches proves one of his main points with a well designed antithesis. The final statement in the speech showed our intentions versus theirs with a comparative type list. Kennedy states, “Our goal is not the victory of might, but the vindication of right. Not peace at the expense of freedom, but both peace and freedom.” The Soviet forcing in is the might, versus what is right by America. The Soviets taking away our safety is the same as taking away out freedom. The Soviets did not want peace, but America does.
Kennedy delivered his speech on all three major television news networks. Kennedy was also on the radio, which was broadcasted to Cuba. Kennedy prepared and delivered the speech like a wartime address. He laid out his demands in a simple threat format. Knowing that the blockade was an act of war, he delivered it as such, with force and vigor.
Kennedy came into this situation knowing exactly what he wanted to get across to the public. He knew that he wanted to let the world know what exactly the Soviet Union was doing. He knew he needed to gain support from the world. He knew that he was going to flex American muscles to evoke fear from the Soviets. Kennedy did all of these things very effectively. He did not need to explain the logic of the situation because it explained itself; remove the weapons or face war. This is all that was needed to be known.
Kennedy was able to prove his point and gain the support he needed. Following the address the pressure that Kennedy had placed on the Soviet Union erupted at a United Nations emergency Security Council meeting in which Adlai Stevenson presented the information that Kennedy spoke against the Soviet Union. This information secured what Kennedy had claimed in his address of the underlying tactics of the Soviet Union. Kennedy and his use of credibility through Ethos pushed the worlds opinion against the Soviets and ended the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Bibliography
Kennedy, John F. “Inaugural Address”. Inauguration Day. Washington D.C.. 20 January 1961.
Kennedy, John F. “Report on Soviet Arms Buildup in Cuba”. United States Media. Washington D.C.. 22 October 1962.
Kennedy, Robert (1969). Thirteen Days. New York, NY: Signet.
National Archives, Kennedy Biography. Retrieved October 01, 2007, from John F Kennedy Library. Website: http://www.jfklibrary.org
National Archives, Kennedy Speeches. Retrieved October 01, 2007, from John F Kennedy Library. Website: http://www.jfklibrary.org
Ritter, Kurt (2003). Presidential Speech Writings. Austin, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
Thompson, Robert (1992). The Missiles of October. New York, NY
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